Higher Education

Attending college has become part of the American dream, as much as owning a home or feeling secure in retirement. Getting a college degree, or at least some form of education after high school, is the surest way of entering (and remaining in) the middle class. Two-thirds of Americans attend a postsecondary school. Surveys now find that most Americans say attending college is a necessity to keep pace in the workforce and statistics show that an investment in postsecondary education pays off in higher earning power.

But while the traditional picture of higher education is of the ivy-covered campus, the reality is much more diverse. The field of "higher education" includes both the intense competition for students to get into private universities and the low-cost community colleges who take all comers with "open enrollment." Specialized trade schools, state universities, corporate training centers -- all are in some way offering knowledge to the public.

Gaining that knowledge can be expensive, with average tuition at a private university hovering around $20,000 per year. Public universities and community colleges are much more affordable, with their costs heavily subsidized by state governments. But when money is tight, public university systems have to compete with other state priorities, such as public safety or K-12 education. Both public and private institutions compete for students' tuition money against each other and, increasingly, with new, for-profit schools that offer courses in new ways, such as over the Internet.

At the same time, colleges also find themselves facing demands from state legislators, businesses and students for greater accountability. The K-12 school system has elaborate mechanisms for measuring student achievement and school management. Critics argue that by contrast, there are few standards for measuring whether parents, students and taxpayers are actually getting what they pay for from a college education.

For many public colleges, this debate is taking place in an atmosphere of financial crisis. Because of the recession, state governments are facing serious fiscal problems and many are cutting back on higher education spending. That is likely to translate into tuition increases and service cuts at public colleges.

The Changing Nature of College

The earliest American colleges followed the European model, where students (white males only) attended daily chapel, studied with theologians and upon graduation were qualified to enter the ministry. A college curriculum consisted of Latin, Greek, math and philosophy, and some sciences.

In 1862, the federal government underwrote a major expansion of higher education by guaranteeing land to each state for colleges that would teach agriculture and the "mechanic arts." These "land-grant" colleges broadened both the curriculum and the reach of higher education. Women and minorities began demanding a better education, but established colleges refused to admit such students, leading to the founding of notable all-black colleges such as Howard University and all-women colleges whose prestige and social profile rivaled that of the all-male Ivy League.

Still, higher education remained primarily a preserve of the elite. For most Americans, that didn't change until World War II, with the passage of the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, popularly known as the "GI Bill." It opened the school doors to more than 16 million veterans of World War II and the Korean War. These students, many of whom were married, had children and jobs, and were often the first in their family to even think about continuing their education beyond high school.

In the years since, Congress has gradually extended aid until all Americans below a certain income level are eligible for federal loans, if not outright grants. This federal commitment has been a major factor in bringing higher education to the majority of Americans. In 1900, about 2 percent of the college-age population enrolled in higher education. That number is around 65 percent today.

Many of those students are attending very different kinds of institutions than existed a century ago. Once "higher education" referred almost exclusively to four-year colleges. But over the past half-century the fastest growth in higher education has been in community colleges. These two-year colleges (once known as "junior colleges") were originally intended to serve students who needed to brush up on their academic skills before moving to a four-year college. But community colleges now also provide a wide range of technical training programs, and their low tuition and open admissions policies have made them a major route into further education for low-income and disadvantaged students. Of the nation's 12 million college students, about 44 percent attend community college.

Affirmative Actions?

A generation ago, many colleges still turned away students based on race, gender or religion. That has changed. But the debate over how to deal with race and gender in admitting students to the more selective universities continues. Overall, court rulings and social changes have led to an increasingly diverse student population: Women now constitute more than half of all college students, and in 1999, minorities accounted for 28 percent of the nation's college enrollment. The number of bachelor's degrees awarded to minorities more than doubled in the 1990s, according to the American Council on Education.

Some of the increased diversity on campuses was the result of a 1978 U.S. Supreme Court ruling that allowed schools to consider an applicant's race as one factor in making an admissions decision. Many college officials say using affirmative action to ensure a diverse student body is part of what college is all about: Preparing students for the increasingly diverse world that awaits them. Advocates also argue that affirmative action is the best way to make sure minorities get the opportunities they were once denied. But in recent years, some white students have complained they are being denied admission in favor of minority students with poorer grades. Critics also say that using race as a factor, even with the best intentions, is wrong because it moves us further away from a society based on merit. As a practical matter, students who are turned away from one institution probably attend another college. But many are convinced that attending one of the nation's selective universities is the first step to joining the rest of society's elite institutions.

As a result, admissions policies that consider race have been outlawed in seven states. Some states, such as Texas, Florida and Georgia, have tried to solve the problem by guaranteeing state-university admission to any high school student who graduates with a certain grade-point average. The U.S. Supreme Court, in a closely watched case involving the University of Michigan, made a partial endorsement of affirmative action in 2003. The court ruled that race can be a factor, but not an overriding factor, in admissions policy. While the court's ruling will permit affirmative action in some form, it still leaves debate over exactly how to implement it.

At What Price?

College prices continue to rise faster than financial aid and family incomes. Indeed, financial considerations often weigh more heavily than academics when a student applies for college. It's important to remember, however, that college tuition varies dramatically depending on the institution. On average, private four-year colleges cost $18,000 per year, but average tuition at public colleges is only one-fourth as much and community colleges charge even less.

Most students get some form of federal financial aid, but in most cases that help comes with strings attached. Although the government provides two-thirds of all financial aid, more than half comes in the form of loans the student has to pay back, not outright grants. As a result, students commonly graduate thousands of dollars in debt. The average cumulative federal student loan debt for those attending four-year colleges nearly doubled during the 1990s to about $17,000 per student.

Though income is still a deciding factor in most aid awards, federal grants, states and universities are increasingly helping students who were once too well off to qualify for financial aid. While the situation varies from state to state and university to university, many are devoting an increasing percentage of aid to students based on academic merit, sports ability or musical talent rather than financial need. Universities gave almost half of their $14.5 billion in scholarship money in 2000 to students based on merit or ability.

Access vs. Success

Providing access to college, financial or otherwise, is one thing. But ensuring that students actually succeed in college is quite another. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, 30 percent of all incoming college freshmen require some form of remediation. At the community college level, the need is even greater, with 41 percent of all entering students requiring at least one remedial class. The demand has forced all of the nation's community colleges and 81 percent of four-year higher education institutions to offer remediation to students.

Colleges are trying to be flexible to meet the needs of students by giving them more control over their course selection and offering schedules to accommodate working students. But along with these options has come criticism that the open door has turned into a "revolving door," with students dropping out regularly and taking extra years to complete their degrees. A 1996 UCLA study found that slightly less than 40 percent of students were able to complete a bachelor's degree within four years after entering college, a decline of nearly 7 percent from 20 years ago.

Public colleges have traditionally been shielded from the kind of academic scrutiny placed on K-12 schools. But if students come to college unprepared, what should be done to promote academic success? Some would argue that students shouldn't be in college if they cannot handle the academics. Others, however, argue that colleges cannot deny students an opportunity just because their high schools may not have adequately prepared them for college.

The Public's Viewpoint
When it comes to higher education, the American public invariably zeroes in on two areas: who goes and how much it costs. Majorities say it's important to have a college degree to get ahead in today's society, and 60 percent of parents of high school students say college is absolutely essential for their child. But the public also sees a college education as more than merely an economic advantage. Surveys find the public thinks it's essential for college students to gain maturity and learn to get along with different people, and it's important for colleges to have racially diverse student body. Yet large majorities also say schools should not consider a student's race or ethnicity in admissions.

Majorities agree that the price of higher education should not prevent qualified students from attending. Most people say students borrow too much to pay for college, and more than two-thirds want the government to play a major role in making college more affordable. But surveys find a majority also believes that anyone who really wants a college education can get one and nearly half say there are "too many students in college who don't belong there." This may relate to another public attitude found in surveys -- that it's up to the student to make the most out of college. The public's belief in the student's personal responsibility covers both academics and finances. Nearly half blame the student, not the college, if a student drops out and three-quarters say students only appreciate college if they have some responsibility for paying for it.